Muslims in Europe A Shared Citizenship Transcending the Imposition of Cultural Homogeneity

Conclusion

Living in a multi-cultural, multi-religious society where peoples’ actions affect each other shows the need for trust and cooperation. It requires a certain morality, the ability to cease acting on simple self-interest and instead to agree to conform to rules for the common benefit. In order to avoid the politics of confrontation the emphasis on assimilation and cultural homogeneity needs to be discarded. It is here where the ‘politics of the veil’ comes into play where the dichotomy between the liberal, enlightened, progressive West and obscurantist, regressive Islam is represented through the contrasting images of the “uncovered, liberated Western woman” and the “covered, oppressed Muslim woman.” This again reflects a hegemonic discourse where Enlightenment values are the preserve of the West, onus of change on Muslims, and with less reciprocal conciliation.

     Muslims seek to and are desirous of accepting European societies as their own while retaining their Muslim identity and this is only possible within the paradigm of shared citizenship. At the same time the increased demands of the Muslim minorities from the state to protect their rights as well as their identities have been interpreted as increased visibility.  In this regard Europe must overcome its hesitation and seeming reluctance in accepting and adjusting to the realities of a European Islam. It should be wary of any departure from its culture of tolerance and religious freedom in seeking to face what it views as the challenges of a growing and assertive Muslim presence which furthermore has the ability to impact European politics and policies. For in the face of the changing dynamics of European society the requirement is for it to overcome its paranoia regarding religion and Islam and avoid making extremism a scapegoat, while supporting voices of accommodation.

Furthermore the tragic incident in Norway is a window to the potent mix of strong anti-Muslim, anti-immigration sentiment and economic recession, unemployment and austerity drives more visible elsewhere. The riots in England in August (2011) open another window to the undercurrents prevailing in a section of society. Being viewed as the product of criminality combined with the socio-economic deprivation of a class of racially and ethnically diverse neglected youth who feel they have nothing to lose. Yet the possibility of the immigrant, especially Muslim becoming the scapegoat and focus of resentment for their predicament, or of plain hostility cannot be ruled out. Europe has thus its hands full in dealing with the socio-economic issues and fractures within its society without further adding to it by alienating unnecessarily through short-sighted policies its Muslim population.

One can thus discern that for Muslims economic and political integration through better employment opportunities and equal access to public decision making and public office is the key. Cultural integration being much more value-laden is not only a process that is multi-generational but not necessarily desired in all its aspects. An aggressive insistence on cultural assimilation whether through institutionalized secularism cannot pave the way for a shared vision. Rather it reflects an intransigent attitude in failing to see the ground realities of a new Europe, one which Europe itself shows to be unwilling to integrate into by disregarding the identity needs of the other, or by forcing them to live against their religious norms. For European Muslims it is citizenship which safeguards their cultural and religious identity and integrity.

The need therefore is to acknowledge how historically, cultural and commercial interactions between Muslim and non–Muslim Europeans have helped define European identity and to emphasize commonalities rather than points of division. Further more for Muslims there are different identifications, which interact and are emphasized differently, with respect to time and place. Thus rather than only focusing on trying to make Muslims more “French” or “German” there is a greater need for making ethnic Europeans more accepting of a multicultural European identity. Europe has to develop a more sophisticated and nuanced view of the issues its society faces. This requires accommodating and unbiased attitudes on both sides and genuine political will.

Majority has to play an enabling role to create conducive environment to encourage the minority to assimilate. Effort by the minority cannot by itself create such conditions.   Secularism is a misnomer in the way it is presented by western societies; in fact it is a way of legitimizing the majority rule over minorities by creating an aura of equal-ness, which actually does not exist. We need to shed the apologetic approach and challenge the western narrative at intellectual level and exposé it. Then present the alternative narratives aimed at resolving the dichotomies and anomalies.

Bibliography

Ahmed, Akbar S. Living Islam. London: BBC Books Limited, 1993.

Allen, Jodie, ed. “Few Signs of Backlash from Western Europeans: Muslims in Europe: Economic Worries Top Concerns about Religious and Cultural Identity.” The Pew Global Attitudes project, 13-Nation Pew Global Attitudes Survey. Washington, D.C., July 6, 2006, www.pewglobal.org (accessed January 19, 2012).  

Allievi, Stefano. “Conflicts over Mosques in Europe: Policy Issues and Trends.” NEF Initiative on Religion and Democracy in Europe, Network of European Foundations, 2009.

Avruch, Kevin and Black, Peter W. “Conflict Resolution in Intercultural Settings.” In Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice, edited by Sandole, Dennis J.D. and Merwe, Hugo van der. Manchester, U.K: Manchester University Press, 1993.

Azīz Al-Aẓmeh and Fokas, Effie. Islam in Europe: Diversity, Identity and Influence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Ben-David, Esther. “Europe’s Shifting Immigration Dynamic,” Middle East Quarterly XV1, no. 2 (Spring 2009).

Berger, Peter. The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1969.

Brady, Hugo. “EU Migration Policy: An A-Z.” The Centre for European Reform (February, 2008).

Buruma, Ian. Murder in Amsterdam: The Death of Theo Van Gogh and the Limits of Tolerance. London: Atlantic Books, 2007.

Callamard, Agnes. “Freedom of Speech and Offence: Why Blasphemy Laws are not the Appropriate Response.” Equal Voices (EUMC), Issue 18 (June 2006),   http://eumc.europa.eu/eumc/material/pub/ev/ev18/ev-18.pdf (accessed January 12, 2012).

Carrera, Sergio and Parkin, Joanna, “The Place of Religion in European Union Law and Policy.” Religare Working Document, no. 1 (September 2010).  

Casanova, José. “Religion, European Secular Identities and European Integration,” Eurozine (2004), http://www.eurozine.com/articles/2004-07-29-casanova-en.html (accessed February 20, 2012).    
Cesari, Jocelyne. “Europe’s Muslims: An Integration under International Constraints.” Global Dialogue 9, no. 3–4 (Summer/Autumn 2007).

—. “Mosque Conflicts in European Cities: Introduction.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 31, no. 6 (November 2005).

—. “Muslims in European Public Spheres and the Limits of Liberal Theories of Citizenship.” The Immanent Frame. http://www.euro-islam.info/2010/05/03/muslims-in-european-public-spheres-and-the-limits-of-liberal-theories-of-citizenship/ (accessed January 20, 2012).

—. “The Securitization of Islam in Europe.” Challenge Research Paper, no. 14 (April 2009).

Delanty, Gerard. “The Making of a Post Western Europe: A Civilizational Analysis.” Sage Publications 72, no. 1 (February 2003).

Esposito, John L. The Future of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 2010.

EUMC. “Muslims in the European Union: Discrimination and Islamophobia.” European Monitoring Center on Racism and Xenophobia, Report. (2006).   

Güvercin, Eren. “Full Equality before the Law for All Religions.” Qantara.de. Interview with Olivier Roy on April 29, 2010. http://www.euro-islam.info/ (accessed January 12, 2012).

Haddad, Yvonne and Smith, Jane eds. Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible. New York: Altamira Press, 2002.

Hirschkind, Charles and Mahmood, Saba. “Feminism, the Taliban and Politics of Counter-Insurgency.” Anthropological Quarterly 75, no.2 (2002).

Human Right Watch. “Belgium: Muslim Veil Ban Would Violate Rights.” Human Right Watch, News. (April 21, 2010), http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2010/04/21 (accessed February 5, 2012).

Human Right Watch. “Discrimination in the Name of Neutrality, Headscarf Bans for Teachers and Civil Servants in Germany.” Human Right Watch, Report. (February 26, 2009), http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2009/02/26/discrimination-name-neutrality-0 (accessed February 5, 2012).
Hunter, Shireen T. The Future of Islam and the West: Clash of Civilizations or Peaceful Coexistence? Westport: Praeger Publishers, 1998.

Hurd, Elizabeth Shakman. The Politics of Secularism in International Relations. Princeton University Press, 2008.

Karlsson, Ingmar. “Muslim Immigrants: A Bridge between Two Cultures?,” Global Dialogue 9, no. 3–4 (Summer/Autumn 2007).

Kastoryano, Riva. “Citizenship, Nationhood and Non-territoriality: Transnational   Participation in Europe.”  (October 2005), http://www.safhr.org/index.php?option=com_docman&task=cat_view&gid=131&Itemid=570&limitstart=10 (accessed January 20, 2012).  

Khan, M. A. Muqtedar. “Islam and the New Europe: The Remaking of a Civilization.” Global Dialogue 9, no. 3–4 (Summer/Autumn 2007).

Lewis, David. Levering God’s Crucible: Islam and the Making of Europe. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 2008.

Malik, Kenan. From Fatwa to Jihad: The Rushdie Affair and its Legacy. Great Britain: Atlantic Books, 2009.

March, Andrew F. “Reading Tariq Ramadan: Political Liberalism, Islam, and Overlapping Consensus.” Ethics & International Affairs 21 no. 4 (Winter 2007).

Masood, Ehsan. “Swapping Treasures, Sharing Losses, Celebrating Futures.” A Report for the British Council’s proposed project, Our Shared Europe published in United Kingdom by British Council (2008).

Menocal, Maria Rosa. The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews, and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain. United States of America, 2002.  

Modood, T. “Muslims and the Politics of Difference.” Political Quarterly 74, no. 1 (2003).

Morgan, Michael Hamilton, Lost History: The Enduring Legacy of Muslim Scientists, Thinkers, and Artists. Washington, D.C:  National Geographic Press, 2007.

Nyiri, Zsolt. “Muslims in Berlin, London, and Paris: Bridges and Gaps in Public Opinion.” Gullp World Poll.  2007, http://media.gallup.com/WorldPoll/PDF/WPTFMuslimsinEuropeExecSumm.pdf (accessed January 20, 2012).
Öktem, Kerem, Sasha Havlicek, and Eddie Heaton. Muslims in the European ‘Mediascape’: Integration and Social Cohesion Dynamics. United Kingdom: Institute for Strategic Dialogue, 2009.

Peach, Ceri and Glebe, Günther. “Muslim Minorities in Western Europe.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 18, no. 1 (January 1995).

Poole, Elizabeth. Reporting Islam: Media Representations of British Muslims. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd, 2004.

Ramadan, Tariq. “Europeanization of Islam or Islamization of Europe?” In Islam, Europe’s Second Religion: The New Social, Cultural, and Political Landscape. Edited by Shireen T. Hunter. Westport: CT. Praeger, 2002.

—. To Be a European Muslim: A Study of Islamic Sources in the European Context Leicester. UK: The Islamic Foundation, 1999.
—. Western Muslims and the Future of Islam, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

The Center for Dialogues. “Europe and Islam: Shared History, Shared Identity,” Discussion Session by New York University Center for Dialogue on September 25, 2008.   http://islamuswest.org/events_Islam_and_the_West/europe_islam_shared_identity/europe_and_islam_history_report_00.html (accessed January 12, 2012).

US Department of State. “Muslims in Europe: Integration Policies in Selected Countries.” US Department of State, CRS Report for Congress, November 18, 2005.

WZB. “VEIL: Values Equality and Differences in Liberal Democracies, Debates about Female Muslim Headscarves in Europe.” WZB Project, http://www.wzb.eu/en/research/civil-society-conflicts-and-democracy/migration-and-integration/projects/veil-values-equality-and-dif (accessed February 20, 2012).